Category: Early Church Fathers

Gary Pollard

[This is a continuing translation of Origen’s systematic theology in modern language]

We have described, to the best of our ability, the three main views about the end of all things and about humanity’s final state. Each reader should carefully decide for himself which (if any) of these possibilities should be accepted.¹ 

The first is the “future incorporeal existence” possibility. It could be that conscious beings will live without bodies entirely once all things have become subject to Christ and God the father (when God is “all in all”). 

Or, it may be that bodily nature itself will be joined to the purest spirits and changed into a celestial, radiant state. This would be when all things have been subjected to Christ and God, and when conscious beings will have become “one spirit” with God. This change would occur in proportion to the quality of each person, as the apostle said, “We will all be changed.” In this view, the body becomes shining and glorious and ethereal. 

Finally, it may be that the righteous will reach the stable place above the non-wandering sphere (the απλανης), the realm beyond the stars. This would be when the visible form of earth passes away, when all corruption is removed, and when we have left behind everything in the visible cosmos — including the planets. This region is described as “the good land,” “the land of the living,” and “the inheritance of the meek and gentle.” 

Above this land is the true sky, far greater and more beautiful, which surrounds our own sky. In this highest sky — and in its own earth — the end and perfection of all things may safely be placed. People who have been disciplined and purified may be granted a home in that land. This would fulfill the sayings, “Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth.” And, “Blessed are the poor in spirit, they will inherit the kingdom of the heavens.” And then the psalm, “He will exalt you, and you will inherit the land.” 

Coming down to this present earth is called a “descent”. But entering that higher realm is called an “exaltation”. So, in this view, there appears to be some kind of road: the believer departs from this earth to those higher heavens. They don’t live forever in the “good land”, but stay there with the intention of progressing further until they ultimately receive the full inheritance of the kingdom of the heavens once they have reached the highest degree of perfection. 

¹ This entire passage has likely been heavily redacted and probably doesn’t reflect Origen’s views at all. 

1. Phrases like “supreme blessedness”, “fixed abode”, “pious and good”, etc. reflect Latin moral/legal thought, post-Nicene ascetic theology, and Rufinus’s personal vocabulary. Origen almost exclusively used words like λογος, νοητος, τοπος, θεωρια; he emphasized αποκατασταστις παντων (the restoration of all things), “movement” language like κινησις and νοερα φυσις, and an upgraded mind — not “purgation” or “discharging obligations” as this passage originally put it. 
2. The line, “After their apprehension and their chastisement for the offences…by way of purgation, having discharged every obligation” is not Origen. To him, purification came from intellectual correction, not “chastisements” or “obligations”. In Origen’s way of thinking, souls were purified through divine teaching through ages. 
3. The “good land” and two-tiered reward in this passage is not Origen. As stated in A, he believed in a gradual restoration of all things to God, resulting in re-integration into God (επιστροφη), when God is all-in-all. This section has suspiciously Latin, post-Nicene structure: the good land as a reward for purified believers, heaven as a higher reward for the “more perfect”, and the purged and meek inheriting the kingdom. Whether correct or not, it has little in common with Origen and much in common with a Latin moral hierarchy. 
4. This passage repeatedly emphasizes “inheritance of heaven”. Origen almost never used inheritance language, at least not as a final state. He spoke of restoration of conscious wills, an intellectual union with God, perpetual progress (επεκτασις), and the transformation of spiritual bodies. Today’s passage is reward-based and legally-framed. Very Latin, very Rufinus. 
5. This eschatological passage doesn’t even explicitly mention Origen’s beloved αποκαταστασις. His original Greek would almost certainly have tied the “final blessed state” to the restoration of all things. Rufinus did this many times in other similar passages. 
6. Finally, in the surviving Greek texts (mainly Contra Celsum, Commentary on John, and Commentary on Romans), Origen never used the Latin “purgation” language seen here. He never described “the good land” and “heaven” as separate eschatological places. He never talked about “discharging obligations”. He never created a multi-tier reward ladder. 

I’ve added this to today’s article because it’s important to understand that these historical texts can and have been interfered with. Don’t take my word for it — Origen scholars Crouzel, Daniélou, Torjesen, Heine, and Remelli have all noted that Books II & III of First Principles have been extensively re-written. This passage is just one example of the orthodox smoothing, moralizing, Latin eschatological redactions, and outright omissions of speculative cosmology that Rufinus was infamous for. 

Gary Pollard

(Continuing modernizing translation of this work by one of the early church fathers)

Even though the whole world is divided into many different kinds of functions and offices, we can’t think of it as being in a state of chaos. Just as our single human body has many different components but is held together by one soul, I believe the entire world should be viewed as a vast, living being, held together and sustained by the power and reason of God—as though by one universal soul.

This, I think, is what scripture means when the prophet says, “I am everywhere in the heavens and on the earth. This message is from the lord,” and again, “The sky is my throne, and the earth my footstool.” The same truth is expressed by our Rescuer, who tells us not to swear “by the sky, because it’s God’s throne, or by the earth, because it’s his footstool.” And Paul (the apostle) told the Athenians, “In him we live, and move, and have our being.” 

How do we live, move, and exist in God, unless his power both permeates and sustains the entire creation? How else is the sky called his “throne” and the earth his “footstool”, unless his power and presence fill everything both in the sky and on earth, as Jesus himself said?

So it’s beyond all doubt that God, the Father of all, permeates and sustains the entire world through the full expression of his power. And since we have already seen that the actions and choices of rational beings produced the world’s diversity, we should consider the possibility that this world will have an end resembling its beginning. Just like creation was initially characterized by all kinds of variety, its end will be, too. That same diversity (which seems to have reappeared in this last age) will provide the foundation for the diversity of the new world that follows.

If what we have said so far is true, our next step is to consider bodily existence itself, since the many different life forms in the world cannot exist without bodies. It is evident from experience that material nature allows for change and transformation, and it can take on many different forms. For example, wood can become fire, fire can become smoke, smoke can turn into air, and oil can be transformed into fire. The same process occurs with food. Whether for humans or animals, it’s changed into the substance of whatever kind of body consumes it.

We also observe that water can change into earth or air, and air into fire, or the reverse. Though it would not be difficult to explain these transformations in detail, it will be enough here simply to mention them, since our purpose is to discuss the nature of “matter” itself. By “matter,” we mean the stuff that all things are made of—that which exists as the substratum receiving qualities and forms, and by which bodies themselves exist. 

We identify four such basic qualities: heat, cold, dryness, and moisture. When these four are combined and implanted into ὕλη (hulee) — matter itself — different kinds of bodies are produced. Matter, by its own nature, exists without any of these qualities, but is never actually observed without them. This is because it always has some quality that gives it form.

Because of this, I can’t understand how so many intelligent people believe that matter — which is so vast and is the tool and servant of the Creator, ready to take on whatever forms and properties he wishes — could be “uncreated”. Some say it existed eternally with God (i.e., he didn’t create it), but was simply there by chance. Yet these same men accuse others of godlessness if they deny God’s providence or the world’s obvious evidence of design—while they themselves fall into the same bad thinking by saying that matter is just as eternal as God!

If, for the sake of argument, we say that matter did not exist, as they claim — that God had to have something to create with in the first place — then God would’ve been doing absolutely nothing because he had nothing to work with. They imagine that matter appeared by accident and gave him the raw materials he needed for creation. They say that this substance was conveniently made of just the right stuff for our massive, ordered world, and was even composed of divine intelligence itself!

This line of thinking seems crazy. It’s for people who don’t understand the power and intelligence of God’s uncreated existence. Let me clarify the issue: even if we imagine that matter once didn’t exist, and that God created everything from nothing, why would we think that he couldn’t create matter exactly the way he did— totally indistinguishable from his own power and wisdom? Obviously, if God made matter it would be perfectly built to take on the forms and purposes he intended. So, wouldn’t it be kind of godless to call matter “uncreated” if everything is made by God out of this stuff? 

Gary Pollard

(Continuing modernizing translation of this work by one of the early church fathers)

Up to this point, we’ve been talking about the earth and how it’s arranged. Now it makes sense to look more closely at the earth itself—its beginning, its end, the ways God has guided it between those stages, and even the mysteries some say took place before creation or will take place after the end.

The first clear point is that the world, in all its many changes and conditions, is made up of more than just intelligent and transcendent beings and many different species of each. It also includes animals—wild and tame, birds, and creatures of the sea. It includes places as well: the “sky” or “skies”¹, the earth, the waters, and the air between them, which some call aether. From the earth come all plants and living things born in it.

Since the world shows so much variety, even among intelligent beings themselves, we must ask: what is the reason for this? What caused the existence of such a diverse world—especially if, as we said earlier, everything will one day be restored to its original state?

The most reasonable answer is this: this variety of lifeforms in the world reflects the variety of movements and choices made by those who fell away from their primal unity and harmony, which was the state God created them in. When they were driven out of that original goodness, and pulled in different directions by desires and motives, they transformed the simple, undivided goodness of their nature into many different kinds of minds and ways of life. 

God, with the unlimited skill of his intelligence, transforms and restores all things, no matter how they were made, toward a useful purpose and the common good. In this way, he brings creatures of very different dispositions back into a shared labor and goal. Even though their motives may differ, they all contribute to the fullness and perfection of one world. It is one power that holds the world’s diversity together and directs every movement toward a single function, preventing this vast creation from breaking apart through the conflicts of intelligences.

For this reason, we believe that God the Father, desiring the rescue of all his creatures through the mysterious plan of his Word and Wisdom, has ordered all things so that every spirit—whether soul or rational being, whatever form it takes—is not forced by compulsion into any path against its will. To do so would remove the gift of free will itself and alter the very nature of the created being. Instead, God has wisely adapted their differing purposes to fit the harmony of the world: some need help, others are able to give it, and others create struggles and contests for those trying to grow in moral goodness. This way, diligence is tested, victories are made more certain, and the ranks of honor are secured through the challenges of the struggle.

¹ d est coeli, vel coelorum

Gary Pollard

[This is a continuing translation of Origen’s systematic theology in modern language]

In our understanding, there is no rational creature that cannot choose either good or evil. But this does not mean that every rational being has in fact chosen full pursuit of evil—it only means that they are capable of doing so. For example, every human being could in theory become a sailor, but not every human does. Or again, everyone could learn grammar or medicine, but not all become grammarians or physicians. In the same way, the fact that all rational creatures are capable of evil does not mean they have actually embraced it. Even the devil himself was once capable of good. Scripture tells us that he once lived in God’s paradise, walking among the cherubim. At that time, he was good. He could have pursued goodness, but he pursued evil with all of his power. In the same way, other created beings with the freedom to choose can either continue to do good or pursue evil instead.

The only ones who aren’t capable of evil are God the father, Christ the Word, and his Holy Spirit. God is the source of all goodness. Christ is the living form of Wisdom itself, and Wisdom cannot become foolishness. Christ is Righteousness, and Righteousness cannot become unrighteousness. He is the Word, which cannot become irrational; He is Light, which darkness cannot overcome. His Spirit is holy by its very nature, not merely by practicing holiness—holiness is inseparably built into his very nature, and he cannot be made somehow less holy.

Any other being that is called holy is holy not by nature, but by participation in the Spirit. This kind of holiness can be lost because it’s not intrinsic, but is a gift. The same applies to righteousness or wisdom in a person: these are not built in to our nature, but can be pursued and gained—or neglected and lost. But if we completely dedicate ourselves to wisdom and goodness, we will always enjoy those things to some degree, depending on how seriously we pursue them. God, in his goodness, calls and draws all created intelligences toward that blessed end where sorrow, pain, and grief will vanish forever.

From what we have already discussed, I believe it has been shown clearly enough that it is not by chance or some arbitrary decision that the “principalities” maintain their authority, or that other orders of spirits occupy their positions. Instead, they received their ranks according to their merits. What those specific merits were we do not know, and it isn’t our place to investigate. It is enough to recognize that God is impartial and just, arranging everything according to each being’s progress and merits, as Paul says: “There is no partiality with God.”

So the office that an angel has exists because of its merits. The “powers” exercise authority because of their moral progress. The “thrones” (those who judge and rule) administer justice because of their worthiness. The “dominions” rule not by chance, but by merit. In this way, that great order of intelligent beings in the heavens is organized into a variety of roles and ranks.

The same principle applies to opposing powers. They are usually called “principalities” or “powers,” “rulers of the darkness of this world,” “spirits of wickedness,” or “unclean demons”, and do not hold these offices because they were created evil. They obtained them through their own choices, advancing step by step in wickedness until evil itself became their pursuit and even their delight. These make up a second order of rational creatures—those so consumed by impulse that they are unwilling, rather than unable, to turn back.

A third order of rational beings is humanity itself. From among the human race, God elevates some to the order of angels, according to their progress in virtue. These are the ones who become “sons of God,” “children of the resurrection,” “children of light,” and “sons of peace.” They conquered in every struggle, killed the earthly nature within them, and defeated not only the impulses of the body but even the unstable movements of the soul. By uniting themselves to the Master, they become entirely spiritual, joined to him as one spirit, sharing his wisdom and discernment. At last, they reach a state of perfect spirituality, illuminated fully by God’s Word and Wisdom, and they themselves become indistinguishable in holiness.

We firmly reject, however, the idea put forward by some that souls can descend so far into sin that they lose their rational nature and become animals. Some point to supposed proofs in Scripture, such as the command that both a woman and an animal involved in bestiality should be stoned, or that an ox which gores must be killed, or even that Balaam’s donkey spoke with a human voice. But such arguments are baseless. We do not accept them, for they contradict both faith and reason. In due time, we will explain how those writings should rightly be understood.

Gary Pollard

[This is a continuing translation of Origen’s systematic theology in modern language]

We need to approach the subject of angels in the same way. It isn’t by chance that certain tasks are assigned to specific angels. For example, Raphael is entrusted with healing, Gabriel with carrying out wars, and Michael with presenting the prayers and petitions of mortals.¹ These roles were not given randomly. They were assigned according to the angels’ own merits—the zeal, effort, and excellence each one demonstrated before the world was created. Based on this, some were placed in the order of archangels, each given a specific responsibility. Others were assigned to the lower ranks of angels, serving under particular archangels or leaders. 

All of this was arranged by God—not randomly, but with perfect justice, according to what each angel deserved. So, for example, one angel was entrusted with the church in Ephesus, another with the church in Smyrna. Peter had an angel assigned to him, Paul had his own, and so on for all the “little ones” in the Church—for as Scripture says, their angels see God’s face every day. Likewise, “the angel of the Lord encamps around those who fear Him.” These things are not the result of chance, nor are they due to the way the angels were created—otherwise we might accuse God of favoritism. Instead, God, the just and impartial ruler of all, distributed these tasks according to the worth, goodness, and strength of each individual spirit.

Let us now address those who claim there are different kinds of spiritual natures, so we can avoid the foolish and irreverent myths of people who imagine that heavenly beings and human souls were created by different makers. They think it absurd that one Creator could have made rational beings of such different kinds. But in saying this, they fail to understand the real cause of the differences. They argue that it would be unfair for the same Creator to grant authority to some without merit, while making others subject to rulers. But as we explained earlier, the real reason for diversity among rational beings was not divine favoritism but the conduct of each being—whether they acted with diligence and goodness, or with negligence and sin.

Let’s use examples from human life. Paul and Peter are certainly recognized as men of spiritual character. Yet Paul persecuted God’s church, and Peter, when questioned by a servant girl, denied Christ with an oath. How could these men—who according to those who claim “different natures” must have sprung from a purely spiritual root—commit such serious sins? Didn’t Jesus say that a good tree cannot produce bad fruit? And if that is true, how could Peter and Paul, coming from a “good tree,” produce such evil fruit? Some try to escape the problem by saying it wasn’t really Paul who persecuted, but some other being within him, or it wasn’t really Peter who denied Christ, but another acting through him. But then why did Paul confess, “I am not worthy to be called an apostle, because I persecuted God’s church”? Why did Peter weep bitterly after his denial? They knew they had sinned, and this shows that the theory of “different spiritual natures” is groundless.

¹ This comes from Tobit 3.17, 12.18; Enoch 9, 20.1-7; Dan 8.16, 10.13, 21; Rev 12.7

Gary Pollard

[Editor’s Note: Gary is translating the Ante-Nicene Fathers works, beginning with Origin’s work. It is meant to update the British English of Roberts and Donaldson. What follows is part of that translation]

In the last chapter, we spoke in broad terms about the nature of rational beings, reasoning through inference rather than laying down rigid definitions. The only exception was where we did our best to discuss the nature of God. Now, however, we turn to matters that should be addressed according to the church’s established teaching. All souls and all rational natures, whether holy or wicked, were created. By their very nature, they are incorporeal, yet still creatures, since God made everything through Christ. As John’s Gospel teaches: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was with God in the beginning. All things were made through Him, and without Him nothing was made.”

Paul also describes the created order in terms of classes and ranks. He writes that all things were created in Christ: “In Him all things were created, in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones, dominions, rulers, or authorities—all things were created through Him and for Him. He is before all things, and in Him all things hold together. He is the head.” The text is clear that everything, whether visible and bodily, or invisible and spiritual, was made in and through Christ. The “invisible things” are none other than incorporeal and spiritual powers. Paul, having spoken broadly of the visible and invisible, then lists the particular categories: thrones, dominions, rulers, authorities, and other such powers.

We have already touched on these things before. But now, moving forward in an orderly way, we must consider the sun, moon, and stars. By inference we ask: should these also be counted among the “principalities,” since they are said to have been created in ἀρχάς—that is, for the governance of day and night? Or should we instead see them only as governing day and night in the sense of providing light, without being true members of that order of ruling powers?

When we say that all things were made by Him, and that in Him all things were created—both in heaven and on earth—it is clear that the things in space, which we call heaven, including the sun, moon, and stars, are counted among these heavenly things. Next, since our discussion has already shown that everything was created, and that among created things nothing exists that cannot be capable of either good or evil, we must ask about a certain view held by some: that the sun, moon, and stars are unchangeable and incapable of becoming anything other than what they are. Many people have held a similar view even about the holy angels, and certain heretics have said the same about souls, which they call spiritual natures.

Let us first see what reason itself can discover regarding the sun, moon, and stars. Is the belief in their unchangeableness correct? To answer, we should first turn to what holy Scripture teaches. Job, for instance, appears to say not only that the stars can be subject to sin, but that they actually are not free from it. He says: “The stars also are not clean in Your sight.” This should not be taken as referring to the brightness or physical splendor of the stars, as if one were to say that a garment is unclean. If that were the meaning, it would unfairly reflect on the Creator: after all, the stars cannot, by their own effort, make themselves brighter or less bright, so how could they be blamed for being “unclean” in terms of their physical substance if they are also not praised for their brilliance?

To understand these matters more clearly, we should first ask: is it reasonable to suppose that the stars are living, rational beings? Next, we should ask whether their souls came into existence at the same time as their bodies, or whether they existed beforehand. We should also consider whether, at the end of the world, they will be released from their bodies, and whether, as we cease to live, they too will cease to illuminate the world.

Though these questions may seem bold, our desire to understand the truth as fully as possible makes it reasonable to investigate them, guided by the grace of the Holy Spirit. We think, then, that the stars may rightly be called living beings, because they are said to receive commandments from God—a characteristic normally reserved for rational beings. As the Lord says, “I have given a commandment to all the stars.” What are these commandments? They are the instructions that each star, in its proper order and course, should provide to the world the amount of brilliance entrusted to it. The planets, for example, move in one type of orbit, while the stars called ἀπλανεῖς (wandering stars) move differently.

It follows that the movement of these bodies cannot occur without a soul, nor can living beings exist without motion. Since the stars move with such order and regularity, never seeming to go astray, it would be absurd to claim that such precise and orderly behavior could occur among purely irrational beings. Jeremiah even calls the moon the “queen of heaven.” Yet if the stars are living, rational beings, we should expect both advances and retreats in their movements. Job’s words—“the stars are not clean in His sight”—seem to point to this very possibility.

Gary Pollard

[Editor’s Note: Gary is translating the Ante-Nicene Fathers works, beginning with Origin’s work. It is meant to update the British English of Roberts and Donaldson. What follows is part of that translation]

We must remember that some beings, who fell away from the original state we spoke of earlier, have sunk so deeply into corruption and wickedness that they are considered unworthy of the kind of training and instruction given to humanity in this life, with the help of heavenly powers. Instead, they remain in open hostility and opposition to those who are receiving that instruction. This is why our mortal life is full of struggles and trials: they are stirred up by the resistance of those who fell from a better condition without even looking back. Scripture calls them “the devil and his angels,” along with the other ranks of evil that the apostle listed among the hostile powers.

Will any of these beings, who now live under the devil’s rule and obey his evil commands, one day be restored to righteousness because they still possess free will? Or has their stubborn and deep-rooted wickedness become so hardened by habit that it has essentially become their very nature? The answer is not yet clear. Perhaps you, reader, may consider it possible that in the end, nothing—whether in the visible, temporal worlds or in the unseen, eternal worlds—will remain entirely outside the ultimate unity and order of all things.

For now, however, both in the visible and temporal realms and in the unseen, eternal ones, every being is placed according to a deliberate plan, in the order and degree that matches its worth. Some may, in the earliest times, and others much later—even after long and severe punishments lasting through countless ages—be improved by this stern discipline. Maybe they will slowly be restored, first by the teaching of angels, and later by higher powers, until step by step they advance to better states. Through this process, they may finally reach the eternal and invisible realm, having passed through every stage of heavenly instruction.

From this, I think we might infer that every rational being, by moving from one order to another, may eventually experience the whole range of states—rising and falling, progressing or failing—according to its own choices and the exercise of its free will. 

Paul teaches that some things are visible and temporary, while others are invisible and eternal. So we must ask: in what sense are visible things “temporary”? Does it mean that they will completely cease to exist in the ages to come, when all things scattered from one beginning are being restored to unity? Or does it mean that, while the outward form of visible things will pass away, their underlying essence will remain, free from corruption?

Paul seems to support the latter view when he says, “The form of this world is passing away.” David says the same: “The skies will leave, but You endure. They will grow old like a garment, You will change them like clothing, and they will be changed.” If the skies are “changed,” then they do not vanish altogether. Likewise, if the form of the world “passes away,” this is not destruction of its substance but a transformation of its quality and appearance. Isaiah also, when he speaks of “a new sky and a new earth,” points to the same reality.

This renewal of sky and earth—the transformation of the world and of the skies themselves—is prepared for those who follow the path we have described, moving toward that final happiness in which even enemies are subdued, and in which God is said to be “all in all.” If anyone imagines that at the end material, bodily nature will be completely destroyed, that view is hard to sustain. For how could so many powerful beings exist without bodies? Only God has the nature to exist entirely without material substance. Others suggest instead that, in the end, bodily existence will be purified and refined until it is like the clearness of the skies, pure and radiant as the aether. Ultimately, however, the truth of how this will be is known with certainty only to God, and to His friends through Christ and his spirit. 

Gary Pollard

[Editor’s Note: Gary is translating the Ante-Nicene Fathers works, beginning with Origin’s work. It is meant to update the British English of Roberts and Donaldson. What follows is part of that translation]

When we talk about the end, we mean the time when everything is finally made perfect. Because this is such an important and difficult subject, anyone who wants to study it should come with a clear and careful mind. If someone doesn’t have experience thinking about subjects like this, they might consider it to be a waste of time. Or if someone already has strong opinions or presuppositions, they might even say that these ideas are evil or heretical—not because they really understand them, but because they’re already prejudiced by dogma. That’s why we must talk about these things with caution. We are not giving definitive answers, we’re just investigating these things for the purpose of discussion. Earlier, when we looked at the nature of God, I tried to present only clear and unquestioned truths. But we will do our best to handle this more like a discussion than a set of dogmatic definitions.

The end of the world, then, will come when God judges everyone for their sins. Only God knows the time when this will happen, and only He knows how He will give each person what they deserve. But we also believe that God’s kindness, through Jesus Christ, will guide all of His creation to one final goal—even His enemies, who will one day be defeated and brought under His power. 

The scripture says, “The Lord said to my Lord, ‘Sit at my right hand until I make your enemies your footstool.’” If that sounds hard to understand, Paul explains it more clearly, “Christ must rule until he has put all enemies under his feet.” And if we still wonder what that means, Paul adds, “For all things must be put under him.”

But what does it mean for everything to be “put under” Christ? I believe it means that all things will one day submit to Him in the same way we try to submit now. The apostles submitted this way. All of the faithful dead have, too. For us, being put into subjection under Christ is not an act of tyranny, but it is about being saved. To belong to Christ means to share in the rescue He’s made possible. David understood this when he said, “I must calm down and turn to God; only He can rescue me.”

Since this will be the end—when all enemies will be placed under Christ, when death (the last enemy) will be destroyed, and when Christ will hand the kingdom over to God the Father—let’s think about the beginning of all things. The end is always like the beginning. Just as there is one end for all things, there was also one beginning of all things. From that single beginning came many different paths with lots of variety. But through God’s goodness and through submitting to Christ, everything will be brought back to one final end, which looks like the beginning. This is what it means when every being in the sky, on earth, and under the earth bows at the name of Jesus, showing their submission to Him. These three groups represent the entire universe, which was arranged from the one beginning, each according to how they lived. 

Goodness does not belong to created beings by their very nature; only God is good by His very nature. Others share in “goodness” only when God gives it, and they remain that way only as long as they pursue holiness, wisdom, and fellowship with God. But if they reject these things, each one causes their own fall—some quickly, others slowly, some falling far, others not as far. This demonstrates God’s fair judgment: each one has consequences in proportion to their choices and how far they’ve fallen.

Some who were closer in time to the beginning (which mirrors the future end) were placed in high ranks when the world was arranged: some became angels, some influences, some principalities, some powers to rule over those who need guidance. Others became thrones, with the work of judging or ruling, and others were given control over those who were like slaves. All of this was given through God’s wise judgment, fairly and without favoritism, according to each one’s merit and their progress in imitating God. But those who were removed from their primal state of happiness were not removed with no hope of recovery. They were placed under the rule of the different powers we just mentioned, so that by learning from them and through discipline, they might be reshaped and restored to blessedness again.

All of this makes me think that God arranged the human race for a purpose: that in the future world—when God makes a new sky and a new earth, as Isaiah promised—it will be brought back into perfect unity. This is the unity Jesus prayed for when He said to the Father, “I’m not praying for just these followers, but also for those who will believe in me because of their teaching. Father, I pray that all who believe in me can be one. You are in me and I am in you. I pray that they can also be one in us. Then the world will believe that you sent me.” 

Paul confirms this when he says, “This work must continue until we are all joined together in what we believe and in what we know about the Son of God.” And Paul urges us even now, while we are alive and in the church (which is like a preview of the kingdom that will come), to live out this unity when he says, “I beg all of you to agree with each other. You should not be divided into different groups. Be completely joined together again with the same kind of thinking and the same purpose.” 

Gary Pollard

The prophet Isaiah tells us about another enemy of God. He says: “How you have fallen from heaven, O light-bearer, morning star! You once rose like the dawn, but now you are crushed to the ground—you who attacked all nations. You said in your heart, ‘I will climb to heaven. I will set my throne above the stars of God. I will sit on the highest mountain in the far north. I will rise above the clouds. I will be like the Most High.’ But now you will be brought down to the world below, to the very depths of the earth. 

Those who see you will stare in shock and say, ‘Is this the one who shook the earth, who made kings tremble, who turned the world into a wasteland, who destroyed cities, and never freed his prisoners? All the kings of the nations rest in honor in their own graves, but you will be thrown away among the dead on the mountains—cursed and pierced by the sword—down to the world below.

Like a blood-stained robe that cannot be made clean, you will never be clean again. You destroyed my land and killed my people. You will never last, evil seed. Prepare your sons for death because of their father’s sins, so they will not rise to take the earth or fill it with war. I will rise against them, says the Lord of hosts. I will erase their name, their survivors, and their children.’”

From these words it is clear that the morning star—once a bringer of light—fell from heaven. If, as some think, he was always a creature of darkness, how could Scripture call him “light-bearer” or “morning star”? Even Jesus said about the devil, “I saw Satan fall from heaven like lightning,” showing that at one time he was light. Jesus also compared His own return to lightning: “As the lightning flashes from one end of the sky to the other, so will the coming of the Son of Man be.” By comparing Satan’s fall to lightning, Jesus showed that Satan once lived in heaven, had a place among God’s holy ones, and shared in the same light that all God’s saints enjoy. This light is what makes angels “angels of light,” and is why Jesus called His apostles “the light of the world.”

So this being once existed in light before turning away from God. When he fell, his glory turned to dust—a mark of the wicked. That is why he is called the “prince of this world,” meaning he rules here on earth over those who follow his evil ways. As Scripture says, “The whole world lies in the power of the evil one.” God also calls him “the runaway dragon” in the book of Job, meaning he is an enemy who has fled from the truth. The dragon is the devil himself.

If these enemies of God were once pure, then it’s clear that only the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are pure by their very nature. Every created being is pure only because God gives them that purity—and they can lose it. Since these evil powers were once pure but fell, we see that no one is born evil, and no one is pure by nature alone. This means it is in our own hands—through our choices and actions—to live in happiness and holiness, or to fall into sin and ruin. If we grow deeply in evil through neglect and laziness, we can sink so low that we become an “opposing power” against God, just as the morning star once did.

Gary Pollard

[Editor’s Note: Gary is translating the Ante-Nicene Fathers works, beginning with Origin’s work. It is meant to update the British English of Roberts and Donaldson. What follows is part of that translation]

Now that we’ve listed so many important names of heavenly ranks and offices—and we know these titles refer to real, personal beings—we can ask this question: Did God, the Creator and Maker of all things, create some of these beings holy and happy, so that they could never become anything else—not even have the possibility of being evil? And did He make others capable of either virtue or sin, depending on their choices? Or did He maybe create some in such a way that they could never become good, and others who could never become evil? 

And still others who were able to become either good or evil? Let us begin by looking at the names themselves. Were the holy angels, from the moment they were created, always holy—and have they remained holy ever since, and will they always remain holy—without ever sinning or even having the power to sin?

Next, let us ask whether those called “holy principalities” began exercising authority from the moment of their creation. Were the ones they rule over made for the very purpose of being subject to them? In the same way, were those called powers made with the specific nature and purpose of ruling? Or did they come into that position as a reward for their virtue?

And what about the thrones or seats—did they receive their place of happiness and stability right when they were created, simply by God’s will? Or were the dominions given their rule, not because of anything they had done, but as a natural privilege that came with how they were created—something inseparable from their being? Now, if we believe that the holy angels, powers, thrones, virtues, and dominions were given their roles and glory by nature—that they were created that way from the start—then we must also believe the same thing about the opposing beings.

In that case, we would have to say that the evil principalities we struggle against were not originally good and then turned evil, but were evil from the beginning—that resisting what is good is part of their nature. And the same would go for the evil powers and wicked spirits—that they did not fall from goodness later on, but were created wicked from the start. Even the beings the apostle calls “rulers and princes of the darkness of this world” would have their rule over darkness not by choice, but by necessity of how they were made.

And if we follow this logic, then wicked spirits, malicious powers, and unclean demons would all have been created evil from the beginning. But if this seems absurd—and surely it is absurd—to say their evil doesn’t come from their own will, but was built into them by the Creator, then we must also say something similar about the good and holy beings.

That is, their goodness must not be something that belongs to their essential nature. For we have already shown that only the Father, the Son (Christ), and Holy Spirit possess goodness by their very nature—because there is nothing divided or changeable with God. Their goodness is not something added on, it is part of who they are.

So for every created being, their position (whether ruling or being ruled) doesn’t come from a special quality built into them at creation, but from their own actions and choices. Those who now rule, or exercise power or dominion, were put in those roles not because they were created with a right to them, but because of their merit—because they proved worthy of them.

We don’t want to base our beliefs on guesses or reasoning alone—especially when the subject is this serious and difficult. Nor do we want to ask people to agree with us based only on ideas that are uncertain. So let’s turn to holy Scripture and see if there are any clear teachings that can support what we’ve said, so that our views can be backed by something with real authority. First we’ll look at what Scripture says about wicked powers. Then we’ll continue our study of the others, as the Lord helps us understand, so that in things this difficult, we can get as close to the truth as possible—or at least form opinions that are faithful to the spirit of true religion.

In the book of the prophet Ezekiel, we find two prophecies addressed to the prince of Tyre. The first one might seem to be about a regular man, a human ruler over the city of Tyre. So for now, we won’t focus on that first prophecy. But the second prophecy clearly describes someone far greater than a man. It speaks of a higher being who fell from a great position to a lower and worse one. This passage gives us a strong example to show that evil powers were not created evil, but fell from a better condition and became wicked. It also shows that even the good powers were not made in such a way that they were totally unable to fall—if they became careless and didn’t guard their fortunate position, they could fall too.

The prophecy says that this being—called the prince of Tyre—had once been good, without any sin, placed in the paradise of God, beautiful and shining. Could such a being have been less than the other good ones? He is described as being beautiful, pure, and walking in the paradise of God—how could he be anything other than one of the holy and blessed powers, those created in a happy and exalted state?

Now let’s look at the actual words of the prophecy (Ez 28.11-19):

The word of the lord came to me. He said, “Human, sing this sad song about the king of Tyre. Say to him, ‘This is what the Lord God says: You were the perfect man — so full of wisdom and perfectly handsome. You were in Eden, the garden of God. You had every precious stone — rubies, topaz, and diamonds, beryls, onyx, and jasper, sapphires, turquoise, and emeralds. And each of these stones was set in gold. You were given this beauty on the day you were created. 

God made you strong. You were one of the chosen Cherubs who spread your wings over my throne. I put you on the holy mountain of God. You walked among the jewels that sparkled like fire. You were good and honest when I created you, but then you became evil. Your business brought you many riches. But they also put cruelty inside you, and you sinned. So I treated you like something unclean and threw you off of the mountain of God. 

You were one of the chosen Cherubs who spread your wings over my throne. But I forced you to leave the jewels that sparkled like fire. Your beauty made you proud. Your glory ruined your wisdom. So I threw you down to the ground, and now other kings stare at you. You did many wrong things. You were a very crooked merchant. In this way you made the holy places unclean. 

So I brought fire from inside you. It burned you! You burned to ashes on the ground, and now everyone can see your shame. All of the people in other nations were shocked about what happened to you. What happened to you will make people very afraid. You are finished!’” 

When we hear words like “You were the perfect man, full of wisdom and perfectly handsome”, and “From the day you were created with the cherubim, I placed you on the holy mountain of God”—who could possibly weaken or shrink the meaning of this so much as to think it describes just a man? Not even an ordinary saint—certainly not the historical prince of Tyre.

What fiery stones could any man have walked among? Who but a heavenly being could be called blameless from the day of creation, only later to have wickedness discovered in him, and then be cast down to the earth?

To be “cast down to the earth” means this being was not originally on earth, but was thrown there after falling. His “holy places” are said to have been polluted, which again shows that he had once been holy and blessed. So we can now say clearly: what Ezekiel wrote about the prince of Tyre is actually referring to an opposing spiritual power, and it clearly proves that this being was once holy and happy, but fell when wickedness was found in him. He was not created evil—he became evil.

We believe this refers to an angel who had been given authority to rule over the people of Tyre and to watch over their souls. Now, what exactly this “Tyre” means—the earthly Tyre in Phoenicia, or some other spiritual Tyre that this one represents—and which “souls of the Tyrians” are being spoken of, whether earthly or spiritual—is something we don’t need to explore in detail here. These are deep and mysterious matters and should not be handled in a quick or careless way. They deserve careful study and effort on their own.

Gary Pollard

[Editor’s Note: Gary is translating the Ante-Nicene Fathers works, beginning with Origin’s work. It is meant to update the British English of Roberts and Donaldson. What follows is part of that translation]

After the discussion we have briefly presented—concerning the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit—it is appropriate to now offer some thoughts on conscious beings: their types and ranks, their roles, and the functions of both good and evil powers, as well as those who exist in between these two extremes (i.e., those who still engaged in struggle and undergoing testing). In Scripture, we find many names and descriptions of different ranks and roles, not only among the holy beings but also among those that are opposed to them. We will begin by listing these names and functions and then, as best we can, attempt to understand their meaning.

There are certain holy angels of God that Paul calls “ministering spirits, sent to serve those who will inherit rescue.” In Paul’s own writings, he also refers to these beings—drawing from a source unknown to us—as thrones, dominions, principalities, and powers. After listing these, he goes on to say about the One who will save us: “Who is above all principality, and power, and might, and dominion, and every name that is named—not only in this world, but also in the one to come. This suggests that beyond the beings he names, there are other sentient entities—some whose names can be spoken in this world, though Paul does not list them, perhaps because no one else knew them either—and others whose names cannot be spoken now but will be revealed in the world to come.

Next, we need to understand that every self-aware being who goes beyond its proper limits and rules is guilty of sin—because in doing so, it turns away from what is right and just. Every rational creature, then, is capable of receiving either praise or blame: praise, if it uses its reason to grow toward what is better; and blame, if it turns away from the path of righteousness. In such cases, punishment is justly deserved. This principle also applies to the accuser and his followers, who are called his angels. But before we go further, we need to explain the names and titles given to these beings, so we clearly understand who we are speaking about. The names “Devil (Accuser),” “Satan (Enemy),” and “Wicked One”—who is also called the “Enemy of God”—appear frequently in Scripture. In addition, Scripture refers to certain angels of the accuser, and to a “prince of this world.” Whether this prince is the accuser himself or another being is not clearly revealed.

We also read about “princes of this world” who possess a kind of wisdom that will eventually come to nothing. Whether these are the same as the “principalities” that Paul says we must fight against—or whether they are different beings altogether—is a question that is not easy to answer with certainty. Alongside the principalities, Paul also mentions certain “powers” with whom we struggle, and this conflict even includes rulers of this world’s darkness. He also speaks of spiritual forces of wickedness in the sky. And what should we make of the wicked and unclean spirits mentioned in the Gospels? On the other hand, Paul also refers to beings who are said to bow—or will bow—in submission at the name of Jesus. This includes beings in the sky, on earth, and under the earth, as he lists them.

Since we are discussing self-aware beings, we must not leave out ourselves—human beings—who are called rational animals. Even among humans, different groupings are mentioned in Scripture. For example, it says: “The Lord’s portion is His people Jacob; Israel is the cord of His inheritance.” Meanwhile, other nations are described as belonging to the angels. As it’s written: “When the Most High divided the nations and scattered the sons of Adam, He established their boundaries according to the number of the angels of God.” So, as we consider other rational beings, we must also carefully examine the nature and purpose of the human soul.

Gary Pollard

[Editor’s Note: Gary is translating the Ante-Nicene Fathers works, beginning with Origin’s work. It is meant to update the British English of Roberts and Donaldson. What follows is part of that translation]

To illustrate the nature of falling away—or spiritual defection—among those who live carelessly, it seems appropriate to use an analogy. Imagine someone who has steadily grown in their knowledge of a discipline, such as geometry or medicine, until they have achieved mastery through long and diligent practice. We don’t think it possible that they could go to bed fully skilled and then wake up completely ignorant of their craft. Of course, we’re not referring here to cases of injury or illness, which fall outside the scope of this illustration. As long as this expert continues to study and practice their discipline, their knowledge remains intact. But if they stop practicing and abandon their habits of discipline, because of neglect their grasp on the subject will begin to weaken—first a little, then increasingly more—until eventually, their knowledge fades altogether and is entirely lost from memory.

However, it’s also possible that when this decline first begins—when the person starts slipping due to a subtle but corrupting negligence—they might still recover. If they are awakened to their condition early enough and return quickly to their previous diligence, they can restore what they’ve only recently begun to lose and reclaim knowledge that had not yet been deeply erased. Now let’s apply this to those who pursue the knowledge and wisdom of God—a pursuit that far surpasses any earthly study in depth and value. Consider, through the lens of this analogy, what it means to gain divine knowledge—or to lose it—especially when we reflect on the words of the apostle, who says that the perfect will see the glory of the Lord face to face in the revelation of His mysteries.

In our effort to highlight the divine blessings given to us by the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit—the source of all holiness—we’ve digressed somewhat from our main point. While speaking about the soul, which came up incidentally, we touched briefly on a related matter concerning human nature. With God’s help, through Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit, we hope to return more fully, at the appropriate time, to a fuller discussion of all rational beings, which are classified into three types and distinct categories.